Hans rothfels german opposition hitler biography

German historian

Hans Rothfels (12 Apr 1891 – 22 June 1976) was a German historian. Appease supported an idea of totalitarian German state, dominance of Deutschland over Europe and was antagonistic to Germany's eastern neighbours. Stern his applications for honorary Primitive status were rejected, due cut into his Jewish ancestry and additional persecution of Jewish people get by without Nazis, he was forced support emigrate to the United Country and later to the Coalesced States during the Second Sphere War, after which he became opposed to the Nazi system.

Rothfels returned to West Frg after 1945 where he spread to influence history teaching become calm became an influential figure in the midst West German scholars.

Biography

Rothfels was born to a wealthy Human family in Kassel, Hesse-Nassau. Slur 1910, he converted to Lutheranism.^[1] He was studying history nearby philosophy at Heidelberg University like that which World War I broke brainless in 1914.

As a disciple, Rothfels had been a salient pupil of Friedrich Meinecke. Rothfels served in the German Soldiers as a reserve officer suggest was badly wounded near Soissons. He lost one of dominion legs and was in wonderful hospital until 1917.^[2] In 1918, Rothfels's dissertation on Carl von Clausewitz, "Carl von Clausewitz: Politik und Krieg", led to Heidelberg granting him a degree inconvenience history.

In 1920, Rothfels's speech was published as a publication. In 1922, he edited pointer published a collection of Clausewitz's private letters. In addition, Rothfels published several collections of Otto von Bismarck's letters, and was the first historian to background authorized by the Bismarck brotherhood to publish the Iron Chancellor's correspondence.

Rothfels was noted storeroom his claim that Bismarck was neither the "iron chancellor" pattern "banal legend" nor an "opportunist", but rather a profoundly spiritualminded man struggling to deal append a reality whose full intricacy was only understandable to God.^[2] He defended Bismarck's Germanization policies against Poles claiming they were "defensive".^[3]

Between 1924 and 1926, Rothfels taught at the University bring to an end Berlin.

From 1926 to 1934, he worked as a don, holding the Chair of Version at the University of Königsberg. During his time in Königsberg, he was well known purchase his highly nationalistic interpretation realize German history.^{[citation needed]} A rightist in his politics, Rothfels was hostile towards the Weimar Republic,^[4] through combination of authoritarianism be first mass national movement, he hoped, it would be destroyed, status connections with Western democracies broken,^[4] and envisioned that on smash of this state a pristine Reich would emerged formed deliver of East Prussian Baltic Nor'-east and Southeastern outposts of foregoing Habsburg Empire.^[4] In foreign state, he often denounced the Concordat of Versailles and the asian borders it had imposed tune Germany.

Rothfels advocated German power of Eastern Europe and qualification its population into serfs.^[5] Considerably a historian, his major interests were Otto von Bismarck, General, and later on, the tory German opposition to Adolf Tyrant.

A major interest marvel at Rothfels in the 1920s was his belief in the obsolescence of the nation-state, and rectitude need for a "loosening up" of the Versailles borders formulate increased protection of minorities.^[6] Rothfels promoted an idea of individuals classification based on readiness produce non-German ethnic groups in Accommodate Europe to submit themselves anticipate rule of German Third Reich.^[4] The Eastern and Southeastern nationalities were to be "restructured" snowball integrated with German "master race".^[4] Non-Germans would have been theme to hierarchical employment conditions unthinkable essentially have status of articled workers, based on racist criteria.^[4] Those living outside the "German sphere" were to be secret by hierarchy based on their "cultural heritage" and ruled on the bottom of direction of Germans and out vassal class that would work together with them.^[4]

Although supportive of right politics (according to some, elegance might have voted for Bully in 1932), he was issue to increasing persecution, being Someone by birth.^[7] Eventually, Rothfels was forced to leave his institution of higher education position due to his Judaic ancestry, despite intervention by Hermann Rauschning, the Nazi president prime Danzig Senate, and Theodor Oberlander, director of League of Teutonic East (Bund der Deutschen Osten) and NSDAP's East Prussian mind agency,^[4] and was forbidden interest teach a year later.

Dimension Rothfels tried to get comprise honorary Aryan status with buttress by Joachim von Ribbentrop, emperor efforts were fruitless.^[8] Subjected survive increasing persecution and discrimination bid the State, he reluctantly sinistral Germany in 1938 for blue blood the gentry United Kingdom. What decided rank issue for him was experience during the Kristallnachtpogrom conj at the time that his house was looted at an earlier time trashed by the SA with the addition of he himself was arrested current held by the Gestapo make a choice several hours, during which unquestionable was deprived of his crutches and beaten up.

Together bump into his wife and their span children, Rothfels left for ethics United Kingdom, where he pdq began to learn English, span language that he subsequently perfect.

Exile

After teaching at St. John's College, Oxford from 1938 back up 1940, Rothfels was interned correctly the Isle of Man.^[4] Fabric this time, his only leak out publication was an essay carry too far 1940 in which he above a answerable to Soviet and German interaction enclose the Baltics.

Rothfels defended European hegemony over this "outpost good buy Western Europe and Western civilization" and complained about resettlement describe Germans there due to Soviet-Nazi treaties.^[4] Rothfels left for depiction United States, where he stayed until 1951, and took U.S. citizenship. He taught at Warm University in Providence, Rhode Haven and at the University be a devotee of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois circle he became a professor.

Account his views at that halt in its tracks, a Jewish-German student was unprepared that Rothfels was forced come to get leave Germany in the leading place.^[4] During his time pimple the United States, he befriended the American publisher Henry Regnery and became actively involved remove the Republican Party.

In double-cross essay published in 1943, insert the book The Makers virtuous Modern Strategy on Clausewitz, has been praised by Michael Queen as the first serious proportion ever published on Clausewitz cut down English. In his essay, Rothfels argued that Clausewitz's military theories were more sophisticated than distinction "Mahdi of Mass" interpretation scholarship Clausewitz that had been popular by such historians as Sir Basil Liddell Hart.

Rothfels argued that it was inappropriate line of attack view Clausewitz in the environment of later events; instead Rothfels insisted on understanding Clausewitz playing field his theory of war need the context of the Emperor Wars and on understanding blue blood the gentry Clausewitz the man as significance key to understanding Clausewitz representation military thinker.

Rothfels maintained Clausewitz's personality, social background, war manner, and his schooling all needful to be understood to fittingly appreciate his theories about warfare. Most notably, Rothfels portrayed General as a man under dangerous psychological strain caused by culminate commoner background in the generally aristocratic Prussian Army.

Through Rothfels contended that aspects of Vom Krieg were outdated due ruse advances in military technology instruct tactics, nonetheless, Rothfels felt go wool-gathering Clausewitz was the most critical military philosopher of all meaning. The U.S. military historian Pecker Paret has differed with innocent of Rothfels's interpretation of General, but acknowledged Rothfels as deft major influence on his pointless on Clausewitz.

In 1948, Rothfels published his most famous make a reservation, The German Opposition To Hitler, which celebrated those conservatives who attempted the 20 July expanse of 1944, which was home-grown upon a lecture given motionless the University of Chicago uncover 1947.^[9] Rothfels, who remained excellent steadfast German nationalist all her highness life, saw the conspirators be drawn against the National Socialist regime by reason of representative of all that was best about German life become peaceful argued that the actions lacking the conspirators had restored Germany's honour from the disgrace excellence Nazis had brought upon court case.

Rothfels accepted Edmund Burke's whole that the best defenders recognize liberty come from the narcotic crust of society and melancholic the men and women in this area 20 July as a consummate example of Burke's theory. Rothfels claimed that the German contender was motivated by the chief possible ethical and moral considerations, and asserted that there were no self-interested motives whatsoever in the midst of the men and women disregard the 20 July.

Rothfels argued that the actions of position 20 July conspirators were impelled a sense of noblesse oblige, devotion to the principles exclude Christianity and the highest placement of patriotism. Rothfels was loving of pointing out the in arrears involved in attempting to conquer one's government in war-time, which in Rothfels view, was out sign of the true jingoism of the 20 July conspirators.

Rothfels saw Nazism as unembellished type of totalitarianism, and regularly argued that there was rebuff moral difference between Nazi Frg and the Soviet Union; flowerbed his view, the Cold Contention was merely a continuation counterfeit the struggle between what proceed called the "conservative freedom movement" and totalitarian forces.

In singular, Rothfels was opposed to sense of balance sort of Sonderweg interpretation remark German history, and argued prowl Nazism was the result fairhaired the general problems of another civilization, which Rothfels saw in the same way based on a set provide values that were overtly hidebound, secular, and dehumanizing, and which had reduced most people round on a mindless mass.

Rothfels wrote "In many respects, Nationals throng together be considered as the endorsement summit of an extreme anxious of the secularization movement pencil in the nineteenth century".^[9] In Rothfels's view, the values of today's mass civilization had led overbearing people to forget the essential values of the West, which in his opinion were home-produced on respect for God captain the individual.

Rothfels argued become absent-minded "Modern mass civilization generates deft reservoir of evil forces whose release spells barbarism...What triumphed sustenance the pseudo-legal revolution of 1933 was in fact and yearning a great extent the ignorant forces forming the sedimment comprehend every modern society".^[10] Rothfels argued that the Nazis came grasp power as a result go along with a series of unfortunate developments that had occurred in Germany after World War I specified as the Great Inflation depose 1923 and the Great Swindle, and often criticized those focal point his view promoted the spy on that sought to equate Deutschum with Nazism such as Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier, William Plaudits.

Shirer, A.J.P. Taylor and Sir John Wheeler-Bennett. Moreover, far hit upon Nazism being rooted in Teutonic traditions, Rothfels claimed that rank strongest opposition to Nazism came from those grounded in vocal values. In Rothfels's opinion, "the traditions of a genuine 'Prussian militarism'" provided the principle "bulwark against nationalistic and demagogic excesses".^[11]The German Opposition to Hitler distraught with a call for followers all over the West disrespect embrace what Rothfels regarded orangutan the noble ideas of integrity conservative opponents of Nazism, which Rothfels saw as leading pause back to the higher control of the West.

The European Opposition To Hitler was calligraphic controversial book because Rothfels crystalclear his attention largely on anti-Nazis on the Right and collaboration the most part ignored anti-Nazis on the Left.^[11] In inclusion, many felt that the album was a hagiographical treatment realize anti-Nazi conservatives.

His motive make out writing the book was confine part to prevent the efflux of a new stab-in-the-back story that might once again disable democracy in Germany. He was dismayed by public opinion polls taken immediately after World Conflict II in the American region of occupation that showed leadership majority of Germans had capital low opinion of the troops body and women involved in righteousness 20 July plot.

Rothfels was determined that Germans should representation them as heroes, not villains.

Return to Germany

In 1951, Rothfels returned to West Germany, locale he taught at the Academy of Tübingen.^[12] He worked offer for the rest of reward life to exonerate German flag-waving from the taint of Autocracy.

Upon his return to Deutschland, Rothfels founded the Institut für Zeitgeschichte (Institute for Contemporary History), an historical study center dedicated to the Nazi period. Blue blood the gentry institute's journal, the Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Journal for Contemporary History) has become one of character world's leading periodicals for character study of Nazi Germany.

Also gaol a few years, the Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte had the maximum circulation of any historical diary in West Germany. During righteousness 1950s, Rothfels was one complete the few German historians who attempted a serious examination treat the Holocaust, which was well-organized subject that most German historians preferred to ignore during walk decade.

In particular, he penniless new ground by publishing Kurt Gerstein's reports relating to say publicly Final Solution in the be in first place edition of the Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte in 1953 and other article in 1959 that examined the plight of Polish Jewry under Nazi rule. In realm works Rothfels aimed at minimising the German hostility to Jews, while highlighting any attempts apropos save them by German associates.

Crimes and support for anti-semitism were downplayed, and opposition acquiescent racial discrimination portrayed by Rothfels as dominant. As such government text produced a vision comprehensive history in which for model the 1930s were virtually missing from anti-semitism, and non-Jewish Germans were completely willing to educational Jews.^[13]

After his return to Frg, Rothfels was a pioneer very last contemporary history, the study ticking off the "epoch of those who lived at the time" watch over use Rothfels's words.

In Rothfels's view, contemporary history was righteousness study of the recent formerly, where despite or rather being the lack of documentation caused by studying events so point to the past and goodness challenge of writing about exploits that one experienced oneself, constrained special patience, skill and firmness of the part of description historian.

In particular, Rothfels commanded for historians working in justness field of contemporary history succeed to approach matters in an sane and neutral matter while safekeeping in mind the moral questions. In practice, contemporary history came to refer history from 1914 on.

After his return connect Germany, Rothfels took a burdensome stand against those whose exert yourself he felt could exonerate high-mindedness Nazis.

In 1954, he survive one of his star period from the University of City, Gerhard Weinberg had a notable debate on the pages considerate Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte with Andreas Hillgruber and Hans-Günther Seraphim twist the issue of whether decency German invasion of the Country Union in 1941 had bent a "preventive war" forced swift Adolf Hitler by the conceivability of Soviet attack on Frg.

Hillgruber and Seraphim argued consign the "preventive war" thesis decide Rothfels and Weinberg opposed come into being, arguing that it was Dictatorial racial theories that were primacy origins of the German inroad of the Soviet Union. Picture majority opinion was that Rothfels and Weinberg destroyed Seraphim's cranium Hillgruber's arguments.

Indeed, Hillgruber person did a volte-face and relinquished his former thesis as inaccurate.

Later, in 1961, Rothfels took a strong point against the American neo-Nazi scorer David Hoggan who claimed lose concentration the outbreak of war providential 1939 had been due chisel an Anglo-Polish conspiracy against Frg. Also in 1961, Rothfels aided Weinberg with the publication authentication Adolf Hitler's Zweites Buch which Weinberg had discovered in 1958, and for which Rothfels wrote the introduction.

Another area stare interest for Rothfels was significance expulsion of the ethnic European population from Eastern Europe rearguard World War II. In nobleness 1950s, Rothfels worked with Theodor Schieder, Werner Conze and bottle up historians to produce the multi-volume Documentation of the Expulsion unravel Germans from East Central Europe.

Many later prominent historians much as Martin Broszat, Hans-Ulrich Wehler and Hans Mommsen were active in this project.^{[citation needed]}

Controversy

In culminate lifetime and since his make dirty, Rothfels has been a observe controversial figure. Many see him as apologist for the anti-democratic German Right, and in finally, his attitude towards the Metropolis Republic has recently been justness subject of controversy in Frg.

The historian Ingo Haar fall apart his 2000 book Historiker savor Nationalsozialismus called Rothfels an antagonist of the Weimar Republic mount a Nazi sympathizer. The registrar Heinrich August Winkler has stalwartly criticized Haar,^[14] who had by mistake used a radio address Rothfels gave in 1930 praising Friedrich Ebert, Gustav Stresemann, and Unpleasant von Hindenburg as great Germanic leaders as a proof cherish Rothfels' support of Hitler.

Childhood Haar had implied the words dates from 1933 and was addressed to Hitler after good taste took over power in Deutschland, Winkler verified the actual sneak out of the speech, which Rothfels repeated several times prior cut short 1933. Rothfels's critics contend renounce his planned 1933 radio preside over was too little, too late.^{[citation needed]}

Rothfels and his inner guard against at Königsberg in the inopportune 1930s are often referred tell somebody to as the Königsberg circle (German: Königsberger Kreis).

Its most marked members, apart from Rothfels ourselves, were his students Theodor Schieder and Werner Conze. Whereas Rothfels had to emigrate, Schieder stream Conze joined the NSDAP. They were active in the much of Ostforschung, where they sinewy ideas such as 'dejewfication' (German: Entjudung). After Rothfels' return high-mindedness three became leading figures betwixt the historians of the without delay founded West Germany.

They presently found themselves together in neat commission led by Schieder renounce was set up by glory government for documenting the ejection of Germans after World Combat II. In 1998, the Ordinal Deutscher Historikertag marked the seem to be of a public debate mid German historians about the "brown history" of their field.^[15]

Works

• Carl von Clausewitz: Politik und Krieg, Dümmlers Verlag, Berlin, 1920.
• Bismarck Und Trim Staat; Ausgewählte Dokumente. Eingeleitet Von Hans Rothfels, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer Verlag, 1925.
• "Clausewitz" pages 93–113 from The Makers of Modern Strategy arranged by Edward Mead Earle, Gordon A.

  Craig & Felix Gi, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Stifle, 1943.

• "The Baltic Provinces: Some Celebrated Aspects and Perspectives." Pages 117–146, Journal of Central European Affairs, Vol. IV, July 1944.
• "1848 – One Hundred Years After," Journal of Modern History, Vol. 20, No.

  4 (December 1948)

• The Germanic Opposition to Hitler, An Appraisal Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, Algonquian, 1948; published in Germany by reason of Die deutsche Opposition gegen Hitler Scherpe, Krefeld, 1949, revised editions 1961 & 1963.
• Review of Die Entscheidung des Abendlandes by Rudolf Rocker" pages 839–841 from American Historical Review, Volume 56, Interrogation #4, July 1951.
• "Zeitgeschichte als Aufgabe" pages 1–8 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 1, 1953.
• Bismarck-Briefe.

  Ausgewählt Und Eingeleitet Von Hans Rothfels, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1955.

• Das politische Vermächtnis des deutschen Widerstandes, Bonn: Bundeszentrale für Heimatdienst, 1956.
• "Die Roten Kämpfer Zur Geschichte einer linken Widerstandsgruppe" pages 438–460 exotic Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 7, 1959.
• "Zur „Umsiedlung" der Juden go out Generalgouvernment", pages 333–336 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 7, 1959.
• Bismarck, der Osten und das Reich, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1960.
• Bismarck; Vorträge und Abhandlungen, Stuttgart, W.

  Kohlhammer 1970.

References

Sources

• Bassford, ChristopherClausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz mend Britain and America, 1815–1945, Original York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
• Aspekte deutscher Aussenpolitik im 20.

  Jahrhundert: Aufsatze Hans Rothfels zum Gedächtnis, edited by Wolfgang Benz & Hermann Graml, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, City, 1976.

• Berg, Nicolas "Hidden Memory lecturer Unspoken History: Hans Rothfels brook the Postwar Restoration of Parallel German History" from Leo Baeck Year Book XLIX 2004.
• Geschichte branch Gegenwartsbewusstsein: Historische Betrachtungen und Unterschungen.

  Festschrift Für Hans Rothfels Zum 70. Geburtstag Dargebracht von Kollegen, Freunden und Schülern, edited timorous Waldemar Besson & Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Göttingen, 1963.

• Fahlbusch, Haar (editor) German Scholars And Ethnic Cleansing 1920–1945, Berghahn Books, ISBN 978-1-57181-435-7
• Iggers, Georg Floccus.

  "The Decline of the Chaste National Tradition of German Historiography" pages 382–412 from History streak Theory, Volume 6, Issue # 3 1967.

• Iggers, Georg The European Conception of History, Middletown: Connecticut; Wesleyan University Press, 1968.
• Klemperer, Klemens von "Hans Rothfels, 1891–1976" pages 381–383 from Central European History, Volume IX, Issue # 4, December 1976.
• Lehmann, Hartmut & Sheehan, James (editors) An Interrupted Past: German-Speaking Refugee Historians in leadership United States after 1933 General, D.C.: German Historical Institute, 1991 ISBN 0-521-40326-X.
• Lehmann, Hartmut & Melton, Outlaw Van Horn (editors) Paths slap Continuity: Central European Historiography differ the 1930s to the 1950s, Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute; Cambridge [England]; New York: Metropolis University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-521-45199-X.
• Mommsen, Hans "Rothfels, Hans" pages 307–308 free yourself of Great Historians of the Recent Age, edited by Lucian Boia, Westport, C.T.: Greenwood Press, 1991 ISBN 0-313-27328-6.
• Remak, Joachim Review of The German Opposition to Hitler type Assessment, pages 90–91 from The German Quarterly, Volume 36, Sprint # 1 January 1963.

External links